The Walt Disney Company and Pixar Inc. Essay Example for Free

The Walt Disney Company and Pixar Inc. Essay To Acquire or Not to Acquire? In November 2005, Robert Iger, the newly appointed CEO of the Walt Disney Company, eagerly awaited the box office results of Chicken Little, the company’s second computer-generated (CG) feature film. He knew that, for Disney as a whole to be successful, he had to get the animation business right, particularly the new CG technology that was rapidly supplanting hand-drawn animation.1 Yet the company had been reliant on a contract with animation studio Pixar, which had produced hits such as Toy Story and Finding Nemo, for most of its recent animated film revenue. And the co-production agreement, brokered during the tenure of his predecessor, Michael Eisner, was set to expire in 2006 after the release of Cars, the fifth movie in the five-picture deal. Unfortunately, contract renewal negotiations between Steve Jobs, CEO of Pixar, and Eisner had broken down in 2004 amid reports of personal conflict. When he assumed his new role, Iger reopened the lines of communication between the companies. In fact, he had just struck a deal with Jobs to sell Disneyowned, ABC-produced television shows—such as â€Å"Desperate Housewives†Ã¢â‚¬â€through Apple’s iTunes Music Store.2 Iger knew that a deal with Pixar was possible; it was just a question of what that deal would look like. Did it make the most sense for Disney to simply buy Pixar? Walt Disney Feature Animation Walt Disney Feature Animation began with the production of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs in 1934. Toys and memorabilia based on the movie’s characters were stocked in stores such as Woolworth’s around the film’s release, a move that became a trademark of Disney’s strategy. After many early successes, the animation division struggled for decades after Walt Disney’s death but  was rejuvenated with the arrival of Michael Eisner, as well as Jeffrey Katzenberg as chairman of Walt Disney Studios, in 1984. Under them, the studio produced a string of hit films that included The Little Mermaid and Beauty and the Beast, up to the enormous success of 1994’s The Lion King, which alone generated over $1 billion in net income for the company. The Walt Disney Company and Pixar Inc.: To Acquire or Not to Acquire? Eisner believed in making clear who was good at their job, and who was not so good, and wanted to give control to leaders who had a sense of judgment about creativity and business. Seventy-five percent of the time, he was able to find a director who had these skills and wanted to work on a particular movie; the rest of the time directors would be told to â€Å"just do it.†6 Katzenberg, who was known for his grueling work ethic and passion for animation, made it his personal mission to bring the studio back to its former glory. He supervised every aspect of the studio’s films. According to one former Disney executive, â€Å"Jeffrey is the sheep dog and the wolf. He’s the sheep dog guarding us, and the wolf hunting us.†7 Katzenberg was credited with hammering out the storytelling of each film and ensuring that each film had a moral resonance. He also brought on external talent to each movie, such as Elton John, who contributed songs for The Lion King. Recent Box Office Performance After The Lion King in 1994, every Disney-produced animated film fell below expectations (see Exhibit 1). When asked in 1997 about the division’s disappointing performance, Eisner replied, â€Å"I don’t think people quite understand our company. We have many avenues to make money from one of our animated films. The video revenues from one of our films are large, the consumer products huge.† Some of the same features that observers credited for Disney Animations’ success—large staff, large budgets, and lots of time—were also blamed for its demise. Disney Animation had just 275 employees in 1988; about 950 in 1994 for the release of The Lion King; and 2,200 at its peak in 1999.9 Competition for animators in the 1990s also caused salaries, which accounted for 80% of each film’s cost, to balloon, with top animators’ pay rising from $125,000 in 1994 to $550,000 in 1999.10 And these pay increases affected employees across the board. In 1994, Eisner refused to promote Katzenberg to president of the company, prompting his swift departure. The absence of Katzenberg, who was generally considered to be the studio’s creative force, struck many as the cause of the decline. As one commentator noted, â€Å"the company’s once-invincible animation studio has fallen on hard times since studio chief Jeffrey Katzenberg left.†11 In 1997, Katzenberg, along with Steven Spielberg and David Geffen, started rival animation studio DreamWorks. According to reports, in the years that followed, DreamWorks attempted to lure away some of Disney’s best animators. Joe Roth, former chairman of 20th Century Fox, became chairman of Walt Disney Studios after Katzenberg’s departure. In charge for six years, he focused the studio’s energy on live action films.13 Peter Schneider, former head of Disney Animation, took over in 2000 after Roth left. Schneider’s goal was to deliver â€Å"emotional, thematic stories.†14 He worked solely with established Disney directors and producers and relied on his younger development staff to broker deals with up-and-coming filmmakers, in contrast to the hands-on deal-making style of his predecessors, Katzenberg and Roth.15 The product development group assigned directors for each animated movie. In the late 1990s, Disney set up a â€Å"Secret Lab† in an old Lockheed plant near Burbank Airport as a response to the growing popularity of three-dimensional (3D) CG films. The group’s first CG project was the costly Dinosaur, which was released in 2000 to a strong opening weekend, but which ultimately disappointed at the box office. The Lab was shuttered in 2001 after Roy Disney viewed and rejected the second project underway, Wildlife, which he thought was packed with adult themes and strayed too far from Disney’s family-friendly brand offering. Disney then focused its animation efforts on traditional two-dimensional (2D) projects  such as 2001’s Atlantis: The Lost Empire.16 In 2002, under new feature-animation chief Thomas Schumacher, Disney embarked on an aggressive cost-cutting mission. Lilo Stitch, the first movie made in the new environment, cost about $80 million to make, versus $150 million for the 1999 Tarzan. Instead of 573 animators crafting 170,000 individual drawings, a crew of 208 rendered 130,000 drawings.17 Cost-cutting efforts took Disney’s animation department from its high to around 1,100 in 2003. At that point, as rival studios, such as News Corp.’s 20th Century Fox, exited the market, salaries slid precipitously. The market rate for the animator who brought home $550,000 in 1994 was half as much by the early 2000s.18 Apart from omitting redundancies, Disney Animation kept costs down by cutting corners where it could, in ways that were imperceptible to audiences. For example, the group eliminated things such as the number of characters seen in each frame or the amount of motion in the background.19 The televisionanimation unit also produced very low-cost films, like The Tigger Movie, which could make money with only $45 million in box office receipts, since the production cost was kept down to $15 million.20 In 2003, Disney Studios finally set up its own CG animation department. However, many staff members needed to be retrained in the new technology, which cost Disney money, heightened tension, and depressed morale within the studio. Disney decided to slow production on its animated films to give the staff more time to work on them and hammer out the story lines. American Dog and Rapunzel Unbraided, the second and third releases after Chicken Little, were both pushed back.21 Throughout this period, Disney came to rely on revenue and characters produced by its partner, Pixar. Between 1998 and 2004, Pixar CG movies contributed a total of more than $3.5 billion to Disney Studio revenues, and more than $1.2 billion to Disney’s operating income (Exhibits 2 and 2a). Pixar’s contribution represented 10% of revenue and over 60% of total operating income over the period. In 2005, Disney even set up a group known as Circle 7 to produce sequels to Pixar movies. The 40-person staff working on Toy Story 3 in March 2005 grew to 160 people during the followi ng year. Movie Economics While box office revenues from the theatrical release were the typical  measure of a movie’s success, financial success actually came from other revenue streams generated by the movie. By 2005, such sources included home video sales (originally on cassette tapes, but increasingly on DVD); payper-view and video-on-demand on cable channels; television showings, whether on free channels, such as NBC and CBS, or on cable channels; merchandise sales including toys, apparel, books, etc.; and video games and other electronic uses of the characters (see Exhibit 3). By 2005, the largest of these revenue sources was not theatrical box office but home video. Because character-related sales had such a long tail, revenue for a hit animated movie would come in over many years—up to decades for classic movies that were re-released theatrically and in home video form. Given the longevity of a great movie, film libraries were valuable assets. DreamWorks’ film library, for example, was about to be sold to Paramount for $900 million.23 Sequels to successful movies were another important source of revenue. The sequels to Toy Story, Shrek, and Ice Age, for example, generated between 30% and 90% more box office revenue than the originals. Once a character had been established, the existence of a built-in audience for subsequent  movies reduced marketing costs. Successful sequels would also extend the life of the original movie, particularly for animated features that appealed to successive generations of young children. Pixar Inc. Pixar was unusual among movie studios in generating a succession of box office hits. Its first five full-length films each grossed over $350 million.24 Steve Jobs said, â€Å"Everybody has tried to break into the animation market since Snow White was released in 1937. So far, only two companies  have ever produced a blockbuster production grossing more than $100 million, Disney and Pixar.†25 Pixar’s animation broke from the traditional model because the company did not use hand drawings but rather 3D computer-generated models. In 2D traditional animation, frames comprised hand-drawn cels, which required the skills of hundreds of people working for two to three years. Traditional animation constricted artists’ flexibility, too—if a change needed to be made to a character or scene, all subsequent frames had to be changed. Three-dimensional CG, on the other hand, used mathematical models to redraw each cel and mimic camera angles in ways that traditional an imation could not. Pixar used its own proprietary computer animation technology to generate incredibly lifelike 3D images and backgrounds, although CG still could not quite make human characters look perfectly realistic. Said Jobs, â€Å"We have 10 years of proprietary software systems that you cannot buy anything close to in the marketplace. You have to build them yourself.†26 Pixar’s technology allowed animators to manipulate hundreds of motion control points within a single character, to reuse animated images, and to edit easily.27 These technologies enabled Pixar to make animated films faster than its competitors and at a fraction of their cost. For example, the company made Toy Story with just 110 staff members, who spent the time saved on animation to focus on story and character development, as well as fine-tuning visual details. History Pixar traced its origins to the University of Utah in the 1970s, where a young Edwin Catmull studied computer science in a program renowned for creating the new field of computer graphics. Around the same time, Alexander Schure, president of New York Institute of Technology (NYIT), hired a team of animators to make a film version of â€Å"Tubby the Tuba,† a children’s record. Frustrated by the limitations of hand-drawn animation, Schure flew to the University of Utah, where he met and recruited Catmull to work at the Institute. Catmull and his hand-picked team spent four years at NYIT, where they made inroads into the field despite never producing the Tubby the Tuba movie. In 1979, George Lucas approached Catmull’s team with an offer to work on special effects for Lucasfilm, producer of the wildly successful Star Wars and Indiana Jones franchises. While working there in the early 1980s, Catmull met John Lasseter at a computer graphics conference and the two became friends. Lasseter, a young animator from Disney, had studied at California Institute of the Arts with the likes of Tim Burton. Skilled in art as a young boy, Lasseter read a book on the art of animation and Disney during his freshman year of high school and realized what he wanted to do with his life. After graduation, he joined the ranks at Disney and worked on Mickey’s Christmas Carol. He commented, â€Å"I felt that Disney was, at the time, doing the same old thing. They had reached a certain plateau technically and artistically with, I think, 101 Dalmatians, and then everything had been kind of the same ever since then, with a glimmer of characters or sequences that were special.†30 In 1984, Lasseter went to Lucasfilm’s computer division under Catmull. In 1986, Steve Jobs—who had left Apple Computer the year before—bought the Lucasfilm computer business, then called Pixar, for $10 million.31 Initially, Jobs intended Pixar to be a computer hardware and software company. He spent the next several years subsidizing the company to the tune of nearly $50 million from his personal funds. When the graphics computers did not sell, Jobs cut a third of Pixar’s staff in 1991 and left only the animation division.32 Jobs said, â€Å"If I knew in 1986 how much it was going to cost to keep Pixar going, I doubt if I would have bought the company. The problem was, for many years the cost of the computers required to make animation we could sell was tremendously high. Only in the past few years has the price come down to the point that it makes business sense† (see Exhibits 4 and 4a).33 Software Pixar initially developed three proprietary technologies: RenderMan, Marionette, and Ringmaster. In 1989, the company released RenderMan, a software system that applied texture and color to 3-D objects and was used for visual effects. Pixar used RenderMan itself and sold it to Disney, Lucasfilm, Sony, and DreamWorks, which used it to create effects like the dinosaurs in Jurassic Park. The program served as Pixar’s main source of revenue during the company’s early years. As of 2005, it had developed special effects for 100 films, and 44 of the last 47 movies that won the Oscar in visual effects had used RenderMan. In 2001, Catmull, along with two other Pixar scientists, won an Oscar for RenderMan and its advancements to the field of motion picture rendering. Marionette, the primary software tool for Pixar animators, was designed specifically for character animation and articulation, compared with other animation software that was designed to address product design and special effects. Ringmaster was a production management system used to track internal projects and served as the overarching system to coordinate and sequence the animation, tracking the vast amount of data employed in a three-dimensional animated film.

Impact Of Assessment For Learning

Impact Of Assessment For Learning This paper considers the impact of Assessment for Learning on childrens progress in a particular strand of the Primary Maths Curriculum. It does so firstly through a review of the relevant literature, and then employs some empirical examples to illustrate how the cycle had helped to secure learning points in a particular context. The specific strand under consideration is the solving of multi-step problems, and problems involving fractions, decimals and percentages; choose and use appropriate calculation strategies at each stage, including calculator use. (DCFS 2009). Literature Review Changes in the professional framework for the teaching and assessment of Primary maths have been reflected in a constantly expanding literature. This is now so expansive, that it can only really be reviewed here through some representative examples. There are two principal sub-genres which feature here: specifically, these are official publications, and range of commercially produced texts which may be characterised as critical, professional, or vocational self-help literature. It is also the case that some generic texts on the subject of Primary Assessment for Learning may be pertinent here, although they do not relate specifically to mathematics. The official literature emphasises the holistic nature of assessment by asserting that assessment of childrens achievements and progress should be based on the expected learning outcomes identified through the learning objectives. In mathematics, assessing childrens progress in a core strand of learning should be informed by the objectives in the strand. (DCFS 2009). The fruition of this process may be visualized in the motivation and empowerment of the learners themselves, supported by Constructive feedback that identifies how childrens work and responses have led to success this, it advises, should provide a shared understanding of the achievements on which to build to make further progress. It helps children to see how the next steps take account of this success and are attainable. (DCFS 2009). There is a sense in which this acknowledges that Assessment for Learning has an importance, over and above what is revealed in outcome-based results, i.e. those from standardised tests. In other words, the latter no longer implies that it can stand as proxy for other kinds of learning. (Campbell et al. 2004: p.119) The commercially published literature is constantly being updated by texts which engage with official policy and curriculum changes, interpreting them for practitioners and parents. However, the majority of these, although they make some reference to assessment, do not do so in the terms now prescribed by the DCFS, i.e., day-to-day and periodic assessment. This is possibly because these models have only been operating in the official discourse for a relatively short period. Overall, this genre may itself be split into sub-groups, the most significant of which are the reflective or critical genre, and the vocational or self-help group. One of the most prolific authorities within this group is Sharon Clarke, whose Targeting Assessment in the Primary Classroom: Strategies for Planning, Assessment, Pupil Feedback and Target Setting (1998), Unlocking Formative Assessment: Practical Strategies for Enhancing Pupils Learning in the Primary Classroom, (2001), and Active Learning Through Forma tive Assessment (2008) straddle successive developments in the teaching and assessment of Primary mathematics. Also helpful in these areas is Hansens Primary Mathematics: Extending Knowledge in Practice (Achieving QTS Extending Knowledge in Practice) (2008), and David Clarkes Constructive Assessment in Mathematics: Practical Steps for Classroom Teachers (Key Resources in Professional Development), (1999). As Shirley Clarke indicates, the sharing of a learning intention is more complex than simply repeating what is in the teachers plan. In order for the learning intention to be shared effectively, it needs to be clear and unambiguous, so that the teacher can explain it in a way which makes sense. (2001: p.20) This may be taken as supportive of the official position: it endorses the idea that planning should draw not only on the learning outcome, but also on the prior knowledge of the students in question. If they are expected to objectively assess their own progress, they must understand the frame of reference, and be able to envisage the learning outcome, even if they havent yet attained it. This idea is also implicit in the ideas of David Clarke: as he points out, earlier approaches to assessment focussed on à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦measuring the extent to which students possess a set of tools andà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the extent to which they can apply them. However, he further indicates that à ¢Ã¢â €š ¬Ã‚ ¦to be mathematically equipped, a student must also understand the nature of mathematical tools and be able to select the correct tool for a given problem-solving situation. (1999: p.11) This perspective is also endorsed in the reflections of Hansen, who argues that, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦it is possible to help children to learn mathematical content through effectively integrating problem-solving, reasoning and communication into mathematics lessons. (Hansen 2008: p.5) Texts such as Gardners edited collection, , Assessment and Learning, (2006), Gipps and Murphys A Fair Test? Assessment, Achievement and Equity, (1994), and Tabers Classroom-based research and evidence-based practice, (2007), go some way to bridging the gap between the official and the educational literature, specifically by looking at how policy and curriculum matters are linked by research and ideology. These are, however, not specifically devoted to Primary mathematics, and neither are they wholly accepting of the orthodoxies which pervade the official literature. Gipps and Murphy make the point that evaluating assessment is à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦not just a question of looking at the equity in the context of assessment but also within the curriculum, as the two are intimately related. (1994: p.3) As Taber points out, practitioners are at the end of a very long and often remote supply chain when it comes to weighing the evidence on what is best practice. As they put it, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦teac hers are told what research has found out during their initial training, and are updatedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦through courses and staff development days, but largely through centralised official guidance. (2007: p.4) This is reinforced by commentators such as Rist, who argues that, We are well past the time when it is possible to argue that good research will, because it is good, influence the policy process. (2002: p.1002). These are academic but not unimportant points in terms of the overall discussion, even if they are not particularly prominent in the day to day responsibilities of the class teacher. The point is that, as reflective practitioners, we might all benefit from some awareness of what shapes the frameworks which inform our approach to teaching and learning. With regard to the current Assessment for Learning conventions, the ideas in Assessment for Learning, Beyond the black box (Assessment Reform Group, 1999), are acknowledged by the QCA to have been constructive of the whole approach. (QCA 2003: p.1). As the latter state, The study posed three questions: is there evidence that improving formative assessment raises standards?; is there evidence that there is room for improvement in the practice of assessment?; and is there evidence about how to improve formative assessment? This research evidence pointed to an unqualified yes as the answer to each of these questions. (QCA 2003: p.1). These are important points, as the teaching, learning and assessment frameworks which define contemporary practice are profoundly adaptive of them. Discussion/Example from Experience. A strand of the Primary curriculum where day to day and periodic assessment was found to be particularly important in the overall Assessment for Learning approach, was securing number facts, relationships and calculating. The examples used here are from Year 6 block E, especially Ma2, Written and calculator methods, and Ma2, solving numerical problems from Unit One, and focused on dealing with errors and misconceptions. One context where assessment was found to be particularly relevant was in dealing with upper school (i.e. Years 4, 5 and 6) learning of multiplication and division. The assessment process had to be multi-faceted, taking in all of the associated knowledge and skills, the errors and misconceptions which arose, and the modelling of questions to identify the origin of such problems. This may be illustrated by focusing on one example, taken from Year 6 Key Objective 2, Multiplying and dividing by powers of ten and the associative law, where commonly, the unprepared or conf used learner à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Misuses half understood rules about multiplying and dividing by powers of ten and the associative lawà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (2009). The important thing about multiplication and division through successive addition or subtraction respectively, is that, once mastered, they can demonstrate to learners that the application of basic skills will enable them to break down seemingly complex problems into a manageable format. Multiplying or dividing a three digit number by a two digit number depends on the use of a number of skills: knowledge of number facts, i.e. times tables, place value, to quickly assess the viability of an answer, and organisational skills, i.e. being able to apply the correct steps in the appropriate order. It may also be useful to augment these with calculator use, in order to verify answers. The important point here is that day to day and periodic assessment and reflective feedback from the learners themselves was indispensable in the planning, pitching and delivery of this input. The interdependence of each step in these calculations meant that the failure to execute one step, often resulted in the failure to complete the overall objective. For example, if times tables and multiplication by 10 and 100 were not securely in place, the learner would get bogged down in the arithmetic. Conversely, the securing of one of the incremental skills involved in these calculations was a positive factor in the learners overall approach: i.e., if they knew their times tables facts, place value, or multiplication by 10 and 100 were in place, it gave them a starting point from which to analyse errors or problems. For some learners, this had the generic effect of making them realise that their long-term work in achieving these positions of strength had a positive outcome, rather than b eing an abstract, stand-alone process. This in turn made them more interested in acquiring other general mathematics skills. Looking beyond specific mathematics skills, this may also have the propensity to develop the students own capacities for self-realisation and self-motivation. As the QCA points out, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦In many classrooms, pupils do not perceive the structure of the learning aims that give meaning to their work. Therefore they are unable to assess their own progress. (QCA 2003: p.3) Achievement in a multi-step process such as long multiplication or division might therefore enable them to map out where they are within the overall standards. However, it was only through a combination of day to day and periodic assessment that the practitioner could be confident of planning effectively with regard to these tasks. There was no point in assembling sessions which relied on a range of skills when they were not secure, either in individual learners, or sufficiently across the cohort as a whole. In mixed ability groups, this approach was obviously the key the necessary differentiation. The logical corollary to this is that discursive feedback from the learners themselves was also important in defining the next stage of planning, i.e. what worked, what didnt, who tried which method, were there any preferences etc. The appeal of this activity also lays in its fine balance of mental and pencil and paper methods, and the way in which estimation is the necessary accompaniment to concrete calculation. Overall, these experiences may be deemed supportive of the proposals of commentators such as Clarke and Hansen, (see above) in that th ey emphasize the need for the continuous reinforcement of planning with assessment. Summary, Analysis and Reflection: Implications for Future Teaching. In summary, the conclusion of this paper is that both the literature and practical experience discussed here are mutually supportive of the need for complimentary assessment and planning. Outcome orientated results can illustrate individual and whole school performance in certain contexts, but practitioners need to be aware of assessment in a holistic way, as a daily part of their approach to teaching and learning. As the QCA expresses it, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Teachers are experiencing an increased sense that pupils are working with them rather than for them. For example, pupils are asking for more questions or examples to practice applying their understanding of a topic or to repeat homework or tests if they have not met the standard and the objectives that they and the teacher have set. (QCA 2009: p.48). Whilst this dynamic sounds very positive, practitioners have new and different responsibilities within it. In terms of assessment, these can be itemised in the following waysà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã ‚ ¦ Day to day: within this level of assessment, specific learning objectives should explicitly communicated, and augmented with both peer and self assessment as appropriate. Periodic: ideally, this should assemble a broader overview of progress across the subject for both learner and teacher. It is also an opportunity to interweave the national standards in a sensitive way with classroom practice. The practitioner can use the insights gained from this process to inform both long and medium term planning. Overall, it should be recognised that the ideal situation, i.e. of self-motivated, self-actuating learners, involved in their own self-assessment, is unlikely just to happen. Considered superficially, it might seem that the practitioners role in assessment has lessened, whilst the remainder has been taken up by the learners themselves. The reality is rather different: pupils will only become adequate and effective assessors of their own progress if they are provided with the appropriate support and guidance. In a sense, this facilitating role is a much more challenging and subtle one than that implied in a more top-down, didactic model. Also, there are obvious problems in considering the learner as a passive or generalised aspect of this approach: it is much more likely that there is a staggered and variegated uptake of the model, as different learners are engaged at their own pace and level. This in turn indicates that, as with all aspects of the curriculum, the social and emotional aspects of learning should be taken into consideration.

Essay --

INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL SCIENCE ASSIGNMENT II 016201300090 IR-1 / 2013 2013 I. System Theory – David Easton System theory was first announced by David Easton, a Canadian political scientist in 1965. He is most well-known for his proposal of applying the theory in the world of political science. System theory basically explains about how the environment and social life as well give contribution and affect the political system around them, and the process goes on cyclically. Firstly, there are demands or supports from the surrounding environment of the present time (demands of changes from people/citizens, for example: rise of salary, changes of policy, better welfare and public facilities). These demands are to be said by Easton as inputs, which then will be taken into account to the political system. Secondly, after going through considerations in political system, the received inputs leads the political system into making decisions and or actions, called as outputs given to the social environment (for example: new policy, new rules, new facilities). Thirdly, the ‘outputs’ are given to the environment and the political system lets them interact. If the outputs given resulting in some changes or improvement, it means there are outcomes. Lastly, after some time the environment interacts with the new outputs, there might be some more changes demanded to the outcomes (for example, the new policies/rules are too strict, the facilities needs be tter management). These new demands towards the outcomes are called feedbacks. Feedbacks will once again be taken into account by the political system, which we can consider as the new inputs - in other words it’s back to the first time, hence called a cyclical process. For example... ... utilitarianism could be done in a wrong way. For example, an act of stealing from the rich to give the benefits to the poor, will still be considered a good action. Even though the process could be considered as a crime, the purpose or result however, is to promote the happiness of the poor people; for what matters to utilitarianism is the results only, not the motives nor the methods – hence the questions arise about utilitarianism being unjust. However, according to Mill arguments regarding the protests, justice actually preserves peace among people, and that is the implementation of the definition of utilitarianism itself. Utilitarianism theory can also be implemented in government nowadays in case of creating rules and policies and especially in making decisions, in means that the decisions made can bring out the best results which will actually benefit people.

Character Summary: The Mice :: essays research papers

â€Å"Of Mice And Men†, being a story about two men and their struggles, however never really going into detail of the mice in which were unjustly murdered. The mice slaughtered by Lennie were never really at fault for their actions. When being harshly petted by Lennie, the mice would only try to protect themselves, thus Lennie resorted to killing the mice in his own defense. These mice, being killed constantly by Lennie, were innocent victims sent to their predator by Lennie’s Aunt Clara. Did Aunt Clara consider the consequences that would later effect the mice? These mice may have had families of their own in which they would never return to. A mother mouse may have gathered food for the next meal only to see the father of her children never return. Of course it is better that she never see what had fatally happened that day. These mice, once caught by Aunt Clara, never had a chance. After capturing this poor, innocent, little creature, it was then released into the hands of Lennie. Is it the mice’s fault that they are so soft, and touchable? If only mice were more repugnant, hideous or gruesome they would have a chance of surviving. Maybe if these minute creatures were more passive, and did not try to protect themselves they would still be alive. However, how can one be sure of that? Perhaps Lennie would have petted the creature to a more powerful extent thus killing it still while the innocent mice just took the suffering. Unknown to Lennie, the mice may have had a dream just like him. Though most mice probably would not have dreamt about owning their own land, a dream may have still existed. Maybe the mice would have wanted to live some place safe from people. Dreaming of a place in which a mouse could eat all the time not having to search for food, Lennie may have killed them. This harsh reality is exactly the same as what had happened to Lennie. It is unable to be disproved that what George had done to Lennie in his time of weakness was not the same as what Lennie had done to the mice in their time of helplessness. Possibly, that was how the mice wanted to die though, happy picturing their dreams in their heads. On the other hand, one is not to be sure that these mice did not die in excruciating pain, paralyzed by the touch of this enormous creature.

John Miltons Paradise Lost Essay: Allegory of Sin and Death :: Milton Paradise Lost Essays

Allegory of Sin and Death in Paradise Lost  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚   That Milton's Paradise Lost is unsurpassed--and hardly equaled--in English literature is generally accepted by critics and scholars. Whether it may have serious flaws, however, and what they may be, is less certain, for it is here that opinion varies. Of particular interest to some is the allegory of Sin and Death (II. 648-883). Robert C. Fox wonders that it has not been the subject of much more critical discussion, asking "Is it that Milton's readers are puzzled by this episode and, unable to explain its significance, prefer to pass it over in silence? Or do they regard it as so obvious in meaning that no interpretive remarks are necessary?" ("The Allegory" 354). Whatever the answer to Fox's query, his point is well taken; in a survey of the bibliography of the Modern Language Association from 1950-1980, fewer than twenty references specifically devoted to this allegory can be located, and many of these, rather than pursuing the question of its appropriateness and/or it s importance within the total work, simply investigate its tradition and sources.    Merritt Y. Hughes, in referring to those scholars who have commented on the allegory, writes that "for two centuries critics agreed that the step into pure allegory in Sin and Death was a blemish on the poem and an external incrustation. Recently they have been wondering whether it is not a part of the structural irony of the whole design" (177). It is this latter view on which this paper focuses; the allegory is indeed an integral part of the whole of Paradise Lost, not an error of judgment on Milton's part, as some critics believe. It is defensible on two levels, both in terms of structure and in terms of content.    Since it is the presence of allegorical figures--abstractions--in the epic to which some critics object, it is necessary here to discuss both allegory and epic form. Allegory, according to William Flint Thrall and Addison Hibbard, is defined as "an extended metaphor in which objects and persons in a narrative . . . are equated with meanings that lie outside [it]," uses characters that "are usually personifications of abstract qualities, the action and the setting representative of the relationships among these abstractions. Allegory attempts to evoke a dual interest, one in the events, characters, and setting presented, and the other in the ideas they are intended to convey or the significance they bear" (7-8).

Advice about cheating situation Essay

I would like to thank you for your letter and would like to commend you for stepping out and trying to ask for help with your problem. Marriage is a complicated thing but is very rewarding, especially when the two persons involved try their best to work the whole relationship to the best of their abilities. However, is it not unknown to many of us that there are just some relationships and marriages that do not work because of different reasons. As for your case regarding your sister and brother-in-law’s relationship, unhappiness is the main cause of trouble. It is unfortunate that your sister resorted to cheating because there could have been many things she could have done about the situation without having to commit any sins. It is also very unfortunate for you because you know what is happening and is torn between doing the right thing and protecting your sister. The best thing that you can do here is to offer advice to her. You cannot dictate what she should do with her life and relationships but you are entitled to your opinion and this is what you should give to your sister. It is also important to note that you cannot force your sister to do something that you think she should be doing because she should make the decision herself. What you can offer is a good advice, as well as support and guidance whatever decision she decides to make because this is her life. Ultimately, she would be the one suffering the consequences of her decisions but in the end, you can say that you did not lack in giving the support that she needed. As mentioned above, there are many ways as to how she could have handled her unhappiness with her husband aside from cheating and you, as her sister, can offer the following advices to her. You have to remember that she may or may not follow your advices and may or may not agree with your opinions but the important thing is you did your part and it is up to her to make the right decision. The first advice that you can give her is to end the affair with her coworker. This is the most obvious option that she could do to end all the drama in her life, as well as to clean your conscience. In the first place, she should not be having this rendezvous with her coworker or any other person for that matter simply because she already has a family of her own that she should be taking care of. This is the oath that she took when she married her husband and should be keeping it because she wants the marriage to last. She should also keep in mind her children who are very young and may not understand the situation. Maybe if she tried hard enough and not dwell on her sadness and loneliness, she can make the marriage work along with her husband who seems to be devoted to her and the whole family. The second option that she has is to divorce her husband to live with the coworker that she is having an affair with. This would solve all problems and she could live freely without hiding anything from anybody. However, divorce might be hard because of the two children and the thought that she, the woman, is leaving her husband and family for another man. Still, concern for the children is not reason enough not to divorce. It is better to live in honesty than to let your kids see that you are unhappy because this might affect their growing up. While some people may think that it is selfish for your sister to leave her whole family and be with the person that she thinks she will be happy with, it is better to have a divorce rather than live in a lie and have a negative effect on the people around you.   Another thing that your sister can do is to go to a marriage counselor with her husband. This would allow her to determine the cause of her unhappiness with her husband and the whole family. Going to a marriage counselor can help lessen the chances of the marriage ending in divorce. It would also help the couple talk about their differences and what could be done to improve the status of their relationship. Having a professional mediate them can give them a chance to hear a neutral side regarding their relationship and might help them see each other in a different light. This should be done with the young children in thought and how hard it must be for them to see their parents not happy with each other. The couple try for the sake of their kids because their children look up to them and it is important for them to have a normal childhood. The last option that you could give to your sister is for her to admit the affair to her husband and let her husband decide what should be done next. This is because your sister does not want to leave the family and leaving the decision to her husband might make things easier for her. However, it is not guaranteed that the husband will decide to leave the family once he learns the truth. It might be that he wants to work things out and ask your sister to give up the affair and go to counselor with him. Whatever her decision may be, you should remind her that she should go for the one that would make her happy not only for the present time but also in the future. She might be feeling happy at this time because of the excitement that the affair is bringing, but in the long run, it might not be what she wants and it might be too late to change her mind. She should also keep in mind her children because as their mother, she has a responsibility to them. If she decides to leave them and divorce your brother-in-law, she has to make sure that her kids do not feel abandoned and unloved. She should also make sure that she has the right resources to provide support for her kids in case her husband decides to leave her upon learning about the affair. She is faced with a hard decision but she has to decide now and be the one to tell her husband. The truth will hurt but it will hurt even more for the husband if he learned it from somebody else. To answer your question, I believe that you have no right in telling your brother-in-law that her wife, your sister, is having an affair with another person because you are not involved in the relationship no matter how close you are to them. The most that you can do is to talk to your sister and try to shed some common sense in her so that she becomes aware of the situation that she is presenting to both you and the whole family. Instead, you should be a good sibling and give the advice that you think is proper for her to make. You should give her sometime to think about things and what she truly wants in her life. Remember that this is not an overnight turn of events. It will take some time and the outcome will depend on what she decides to do. Your loyalty is to yourself and the whole family. Although it is obvious that you should be taking the side of your brother-in-law, we are still not sure as to why your sister became unhappy with the relationship in the first place. We cannot judge her just because she presents to be the â€Å"sinful† one in the situation. Like many other situations, numerous factors can contribute to her decision to have an affair and unhappiness might only be a small part of it. Cheating, for most couples, is a very grave sin and can cause for breakups and separations. It will not be a surprise, then, if the husband decides to leave his family. Remember that this is a guy and that his ego plays a major part in his decisions. It might be hard for him to accept that his wife cheated on him. Whatever happens, you must remember that you should be there for the both of them to give support in their respective decisions. This is the only way that you can show that you care for them both.

Economic growth Essay

Economic growth refers to the increase in the levels of a country’s wealth and capital as a result of positive change in the levels of production of goods and services during a certain period of time. 1 Economic growth is usually ignited by technological advancements and positive external forces. Economic growth can be measured either in terms of nominal growth or real growth. Nominal growth takes inflation into account and thus demonstrates economic growth as Net Domestic Product while real growth does not account for inflation and thus demonstrates economic growth as Gross Domestic Product. Economic growth is usually determined by levels of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). GDP is the preferred means of measuring economic growth because increase or decrease in the GDP levels in a country reflects the real the standards of living of its population. GDP is the total market value of all final products of all final goods and services produced in a country in a given year expressed in money value. 2 GDP of a country equals total consumer investments and government spending, plus the value of exports, minus the value of imports. As such, GDP can be summarised as follows: †¢ GDP = Consumption + gross Investment + Government Spending + (Exports-Imports) or simply GDP = C+I+G+(X-M). However, it must be noted that economic growth entails more than just mere change of scale of economic magnitudes. By its very own nature, growth modifies economic structures thereby adjusting the general technological and social dynamics in a country. Bourguignon points out that economic growth may modify the sectoral structure of an economic unit, leading to close down of firms in one sector and creation of new firms in another. 3 Bourguignon further notes that â€Å"growth modifies the structure of prices, thus affecting the standard of living in households in a way that depends on their consumption preferences†. 4 Moreover, economic growth calls for increased technological innovations which in turn increases the necessity for increased technological knowledge and skills, a situation that would require increased investment in education and better remuneration for holders of such important skills. The final and most important attribute of economic growth is that it reduces the abundant availability of public goods such as adequate water supply and clean air due to increased pollution. Consequently, this may call for intervention and preventive measures in order to maintain adequate supply of the environmental goods. Therefore, economic growth impacts on the economy, social structures and environmental factors of a country. Therefore, people, as the human factors of economic growth remain very important components of economic growth. While economic growth is primarily driven by state dynamics and machinery, the interactions within the societal fabric bear consequential impact on the manner in which economic growth may either be beneficial or harmful to the long-term interest of the people. 5 Therefore, the pursuit of economic growth presents as much benefits as threats to the long-term interests of the people. The different principles and models of economic growth are best demonstrated by different existing theories of economic growth. 1. J. Mokyr, Long-term economic growth and history of technology, Department of Economics and history, Northwestern University, 2005, p. 33 2. R. Lucas, lectures on economic growth, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 2002, p. 41 3. F. Bourguignon, Handbook of economic growth, World Bank, 2006, p. 7 4. F. Bourguignon 5. E. Helpman, The mystery of economic growth, Cambridge: Harvard University, 2004, p. 7 Theoretical background Although there are many theories and models of economic growth, the exogenous theory of economic growth and the endogenous theory of economic growth provide the most vivid theoretical background on issues concerning economic growth. The exogenous theory was advanced by the neo-classical theorists while the endogenous theory was advanced by the modern economic theorists. The exogenous theory of economic growth was advanced by Robert Solow and Trevor Swan. The theory states that â€Å"long-run rate of growth of a system is determined by forces outside the system†. 6The main prediction of this theory is that an economy will always converge towards a steady state of growth which depends absolutely on the rate of technological progress and growth of labour. The theory is based on a series of equations which demonstrate the relationship between labour, time, capital goods, output and investments. The main argument of the exogenous growth theory is based on the assumption that capital expansion is subject to diminishing returns. Therefore, given a fixed amount of labour force, the impact on the output of the last unit of capital accumulated will always be less than the impact on the preceding units. 7 This cycle continues to a point where new amounts of technological progress and labour force adds no new value to capital produced. New technological innovations and labour force output only serve to replenish the loss of value to existing capital due to depreciation. Solow and Swan refer to this as static state of growth. Modern theorists such as Barro, Ormerod, and Romer disagreed with the idea of static state of growth subject to diminishing returns as advanced by the exogenous theorists. They therefore developed a more relevant and realistic theory that came to be referred to as the endogenous theory. Proponents of endogenous growth theory argue that comparisons between trends of production in industrialised countries today and before industrialisation reveal that growth was generated and sustained by forces within as opposed to forces outside the countries. The endogenous theory states that â€Å"economic growth is generated from within a system as a direct result of internal processes†. 8 according to the endogenous theorists, improvement in productivity can be linked to a faster pace of innovation and committed investment in human capital. â€Å"The theory notes that the enhancement of a nation’s human capital will lead to economic growth by means of the development of new form of technology that will lead to efficient and sufficient means of production†. 9 The main focus of the endogenous theorists lies on the need for both government and private sector institutions to nurture innovations through incentives that will encourage individuals to be innovative. As Romer points out, â€Å"the rate of technological progress should not be taken given in a growth model, but rather, appropriate government policies have to be applied in order to raise a country’s growth rate†. 10Such policies should particularly be targeted towards creating higher levels of competition in markets and greater innovation initiatives among individuals. Endogenous theorists identify private investment in research and development as being the key driving force for technical progress. Furthermore, protection of property rights and patents can provide the incentive to engage in research and development. 6. R. M. Solow, Review of economics and statistics, Technical change and the aggregate production function 1957, P. 39 7. Solow 8. P. Romer, Review of economics and statistics, Technical change and the aggregate production function 1957, P. 73 9. Romer p. 74 10. Romer p. 81 Why the pursuit of economic growth is not in people’s long-term interest Concerns to the effect that the pursuit of economic growth is not in people’s long-term interest are very much validated by the current worrying trends of economic growth. While proponents of economic growth cite many benefits associated with economic growth, such benefits only stand to serve people’s short-term interests. It is increasingly becoming apparent that just like the past, the current economic growth initiatives are being undertaken with little regard to long-term repercussions of such initiatives. One of the most important long-term interests that economic growth should guarantee is the safety and conservation of the ecosystem, which will in turn guarantee people’s long-term interests. To the contrary, the aspects of the safety of natural resources and the environmental preservation are the most abused by economic growth. Yet, the gradual destruction of the environment harbours the risk of eventual destruction of the planet earth. Without action on climate change, economic growth and development are likely to generate levels of greenhouse gas emissions that would be very damaging. 11 Economic growth is evidently increasing the demand for fossil-fuel energy, thus the failure to implement appropriate international collective actions will allow manufacturers and consumers to continue with their risky energy consumption behaviours, thereby posing greater threats of adverse climatic change. Adequate supply of the environmental goods is facing continuous challenges as economic growth continues to wreck havoc on the environment. The Stern Review Report on the Economics of Climate Change (2006) identified that the world ecosystem is facing threats of eminent destruction due to increased levels of greenhouse emissions to the atmosphere. According to the Stern Report, greenhouse-gas concentrations in the atmosphere stood at around 430 CO2 equivalents as of 2006, compared to 280ppm before industrial revolution. 12The overwhelming pollution is as a result of combined forces of emissions of toxic gases from the power sectors, transport sectors, building sectors, industry sectors, land use sectors and land use sectors throughout the world. Indeed, these particular sectors represent the key driving forces of economic growth. As pointed out in the Stern Report â€Å"emissions have been driven by economic development. Carbon dioxide emissions have strongly been correlated with GDP per head across time and countries. North America and Europe have produced around 70% of carbon dioxide emissions from energy production since 1850, while developing countries account for less than one quarter of cumulative emissions. †13 Annual emissions are increasing at constant rates year after year. Between 1950 and the year 2000, emission of Carbon dioxide which accounts for the largest share of green house gases, grew by 2. 5% annually. 14The Stern Report further warns that without action to combat climate change, atmospheric concentration of green house gases will continue to rise. â€Å"In a plausible business as usual scenario, they will reach 555ppm CO2e by the year 2035†. 15 Moreover, total emissions are bound to increase more rapidly than emissions per head in tandem with the projections that global population will remain positive until 2050. 11. Stern Review report on economics of change, Impact of climate change on growth and development, November 2006, p. 169 12. Greenhouse gases are usually converted to a common unit, CO2 equivalent, which measures the amount of carbon dioxide that would produce the same global warming potential (GWP) over a given period as the total amount of greenhouse gas in question. 13. Stern Review report on economics of change 14. Stern Review report on economics of change 15. Stern Review report on economics of change These are the most shocking revelations concerning the gradual and unabated destruction that economic growth is imposing on the environment! The future generations remain exposed to the risks of frequent disasters that are associated with global warming. Such risks include food and water shortages, increase air pollution, increased desert cover, rise in sea levels as well as increased frequencies of tornadoes and tsunamis. Obviously, such threats of climatic change will impact negatively on population growth and living conditions for the people in future. Table 1 demonstrates a variety of experiences across different countries of the world. The EU and the economies in transition reported considerable reduction in carbon intensity during the period. However, India went against the grain and significantly increased carbon emissions during the same period. Developing countries registered significant growth in populations as well as growth in GDP per head. Equally notable is the tremendous decrease in the energy intensity of output in India and China. This table clearly demonstrates that despite the high levels of emissions, many countries undertook important economic reforms in the 1990’s, a move that led to marked improvements in utilisation of energy, with many countries registering significant reductions in wasteful use of energy. Risks posed by economic growth are set to reduce with increased adoption of energy efficient production strategies that will ensure environmental conservation while not hurting long-term growth rate targets. Why the pursuit of economic growth is in people’s long-term interest Despite the many reservations that opponents of economic growth have, there exists a general consensus that economic growth is a prerequisite requirement for the well being of the current and future generations. The future can only be secures through persistent creation of wealth and capital. Industrial revolution is credited for having ignited economic growth and eventual improvement of living standards. â€Å"The significance of industrial revolution is best captured by the Malthusian theory of economic growth which argues that industrial revolution and advancement in medicine translated to increased life expectancy and reduced infant mortality†. 15 15. R. Lucas, lectures on economic growth, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 2002, p. 49 According to the Malthusian theory, this industrial revolution culminated to increased income and population growth and eventual increase in income per capita in industrialised counties, and lasted for many years thereafter. 16Therefore, economic growth remains a very important component sustained development of both current and future generations. Conclusion It is evident that economic growth also corresponds to processes of rapid replacement and reorganisation of human activities as well as natural resources, all in the spirit of investment and maximisation of returns. As such, â€Å"this realisation of the exponential abilities of the human race, as facilitated by self-organised life support and cultural systems, is a confirmation of the creative and flexible nature of human beings which however, is highly unpredictable in many ways. 17 Environmental threats posed by economic growth not withstanding, economic growth remains an important transition that this world must undergo. Therefore, the challenges posed by economic growth can best be tackled through creation of a balance between the conflicting concepts economic growth and mitigation of risks posed by economic growth. Economic growth is a manifestation of technological change. â€Å"Yet the essence of technological modernity is non-stationery: many scholars have acknowledged that technological change has become self propelled and autocatalytic, whereby change feeds on change. Thus unlike other form of growths, technology is not bound from above. Inventions have become a norm thus are unstoppable by forces of any nature. †18 The stern Report acknowledges that â€Å"the relationship between economic growth and CO2 emissions is not immutable. There are practical examples where change in energy technologies, the structure of economies and the pattern of demand have reduced the responsiveness of emissions to income growth, particularly in the richest countries. Strong deliberate policy choices will be needed, however, to decarbonise both developing countries on the scale required for climate stabilisation†. 19 This is in itself a confirmation that effective protection and conservation of the environmental goods can be achieved tremendously through the adoption of energy efficient production strategies that will ensure environmental conservation while not hurting long-term growth rate targets. However, wide reaching strategies should be employed in the noble cause of environmental protection. Strategies that are over reliant on reduction of fossil fuels may not be enough to stop the overwhelming emissions of poisonous gases. Other strategies such as radical shift shifts towards service based economies have proved effective in slowing down or reversing the increase in emissions of poisonous gases to the atmosphere. 20There should also be increased lobbying for the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol of Climate Change by all countries in the world, including the United States. Being the world’s largest economy, the United States releases the highest amounts of toxic gas emissions to the atmosphere, yet the country has refused to recognise the Kyoto protocol which seeks to protect the world from being further exposed to the threat of climatic change. 16. R. Lucas, lectures on economic growth, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 2002, p. 48 17. E. Helpman, The mystery of economic growth, Cambridge: Harvard University, 2004, p. 16 18. J. Mokyr, Long-term economic growth and history of technology, Department of Economics and history, Northwestern University, 2005, p. 37 19. Stern Review report on economics of change, Impact of climate change on growth and development, November 2006, p. 169 20. Stern Review report on economics of change Bibliography Aghion, P. & Steven N. Durlauf, (Ed), Handbook of economic growth, Vol. 1B. Elsevier B. V. , 2005. Bourguignon, F. Handbook of economic growth, World Bank, 2006. Helpman, E. The mystery of economic growth, Cambridge: Harvard University, 2004 Larry E. J. Neoclassical models of endogenous growth: the effects of physical policy, innovations and fluctuations, Elsevier B. V. 2005 p. 9-32. Lucas, R. lectures on economic growth, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 2002 Mokyr, J. Long-term economic growth and history of technology, Department of Economics and history, Northwestern University, 2005, p. 32 – 43 Romer, P. Journal of Political Economy, Endogenous technological change, Vol. 98, No. 5, Oct. 1990. p. 71-102. Solow R. M. Review of economics and statistics, Technical change and the aggregate production function 1957, P. 37-51 Stern Review report on economics of change, Impact of climate change on growth and development, November 2006, retrieved on 29 March 2007, < http://www. hm-treasury. gov. uk/media/3/2/Chapter_7_Projecting_the_Growth_of_Greenhouse-Gas_Emissions. pdf